Post by TaikiKou on Dec 8, 2003 1:00:23 GMT -5
1. Ad Hominem (argument to the person)
Authors use ad hominem when they shift the focus of an argument away from the issues and towards the authors' opponent. Ad hominem arguments often contain personal commentary and personal attacks.
Example: It is obvious that Merle has no business serving as a member of the child welfare committee. He cannot even maintain his own household--his wife just left him.
2. Ad Populum (argument to the people)
The ad populum fallacy occurs when authors evade the issues and appeal to the emotions of the people-the reader in this case. The authors' appeal is made to allegiances and beliefs that people hold dear.
Example: If you are a real American you will exercise your right to vote.
3. Bandwagon Appeal
The bandwagon appeal appears when authors suggest that everyone agrees with it, does it, or believes it. Rather than provide solid reasons to support claims, the author merely suggests that since everyone else is in agreement it is valid support-BUT IT IS NOT!
Example: I'm going to get that new CD recorder because everyone I know has it.
4. Red Herring
Authors sometime introduce irrelevant issues to distract the reader's attention away from the real issues. This is the red herring fallacy. You can easily remember the "red herring" fallacy if you remember how the term originated. During foxhunts, servants would drag a smoked herring fish across the trail of the foxes. The fish scent would divert the hunting dogs attention away from the foxes and lengthened the "thrill of the chase" for the hunters. Likewise, when authors use red herring fallacy, they divert your attention away from the real issues.
Example: It is wasteful to enact laws against drunk drivers when so many murders are walking our streets.
5. Hasty Generalization
When authors jump to a conclusion and ignore or overlook important facts, they have made a hasty generalization. Hasty generalizations often result in stereotypical statements that lack factual support and over generalize the actions of one (or a few) to reflect an entire group.
Example: I have met two of the group's four ambassadors and they were terribly rude. The other two ambassadors are probably rude and ill mannered, too.
6. Either/or
Authors use the either/or fallacy when they present an argument that can only conclude in one of two ways. The two conclusion choices given are complete opposites. The authors ignore the possibility of any other outcomes. By limiting the results to two possibilities, the authors have eliminated a range of facts that could result in other conclusions.
Example: People who didn't contribute to our toy drive obviously don't care about children.
7. Circular Reasoning
Authors use circular reasoning when the repeat their argument in different words to make their supporting statement. By restating the point in different words, the argument does not move forward-it just goes around in a circle. Hence, this fallacy is called circular reasoning.
Example: Sports utility vehicles continue to be popular because consumers like them.
8. Begging the Question
Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning (see fallacy #7 above for more information). When authors "beg the question" they assert that facts are true when they have not proven them to be true. Begging the question fallacy is used to evade the real issues by drawing a conclusion without properly reviewing the facts. In the following example, notice how the author makes the assumption that a form is useless without providing any proof.
Example: All useless university forms like this one should be eliminated.
9. False Analogy
An analogy is an extended comparison of things that share qualities. A valid analogy provides examples that highlight the similarities between the compared items. When authors use analogies to clarify their points, they must carefully construct the analogy so the similarities are evident. False analogies occur when the comparison between the objects does not make sense. False analogies often happen when an author has not completely thought through the analogy and neglects to consider qualities NOT suitable for comparison. In the following example, think of all the ways children are NOT like puppies. The author ignores these differences.
Example: Very young children are like puppies-trusting, affectionate, and dependent; therefore, they should be trained using the same system of punishment and reward that is so successful in puppy obedience training.
10. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty cause and effect)
When one event precedes another, the first event can be viewed as the cause of the second event. However, not all relationships are causal, and often the fact that one event precedes another is merely coincidental. When authors provide no other proof for the causal relationship between events, and assume that since one event preceded another the first event is the cause of the second, they have created a post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy. Post hoc ergo propter hoc is Latin for -"after this, therefore because of this."
Example: The past three student body presidents were accepted into law school. Andy, our current student body president, will therefore get into law school next year.
11. Non Sequitur
Non sequitur is a Latin phrase meaning "it doesn't follow." When authors make a conclusion that is not logically linked to the arguments they presented, they have created a non sequitur. Some non sequitur fallacies are difficult to detect. In the following example the fact that Dr. Smith is a famous researcher and archeologist does not mean that she will be an effective teacher. Individuals can have a wealth of subject area knowledge yet not be able to teach and communicate this knowledge to others.
Example: Dr. Smith is a world-renowned archeologist and researcher. She was even featured on a cable special because of her impressive research work. She will be a wonderful teacher for our archeology class next semester.
Authors use ad hominem when they shift the focus of an argument away from the issues and towards the authors' opponent. Ad hominem arguments often contain personal commentary and personal attacks.
Example: It is obvious that Merle has no business serving as a member of the child welfare committee. He cannot even maintain his own household--his wife just left him.
2. Ad Populum (argument to the people)
The ad populum fallacy occurs when authors evade the issues and appeal to the emotions of the people-the reader in this case. The authors' appeal is made to allegiances and beliefs that people hold dear.
Example: If you are a real American you will exercise your right to vote.
3. Bandwagon Appeal
The bandwagon appeal appears when authors suggest that everyone agrees with it, does it, or believes it. Rather than provide solid reasons to support claims, the author merely suggests that since everyone else is in agreement it is valid support-BUT IT IS NOT!
Example: I'm going to get that new CD recorder because everyone I know has it.
4. Red Herring
Authors sometime introduce irrelevant issues to distract the reader's attention away from the real issues. This is the red herring fallacy. You can easily remember the "red herring" fallacy if you remember how the term originated. During foxhunts, servants would drag a smoked herring fish across the trail of the foxes. The fish scent would divert the hunting dogs attention away from the foxes and lengthened the "thrill of the chase" for the hunters. Likewise, when authors use red herring fallacy, they divert your attention away from the real issues.
Example: It is wasteful to enact laws against drunk drivers when so many murders are walking our streets.
5. Hasty Generalization
When authors jump to a conclusion and ignore or overlook important facts, they have made a hasty generalization. Hasty generalizations often result in stereotypical statements that lack factual support and over generalize the actions of one (or a few) to reflect an entire group.
Example: I have met two of the group's four ambassadors and they were terribly rude. The other two ambassadors are probably rude and ill mannered, too.
6. Either/or
Authors use the either/or fallacy when they present an argument that can only conclude in one of two ways. The two conclusion choices given are complete opposites. The authors ignore the possibility of any other outcomes. By limiting the results to two possibilities, the authors have eliminated a range of facts that could result in other conclusions.
Example: People who didn't contribute to our toy drive obviously don't care about children.
7. Circular Reasoning
Authors use circular reasoning when the repeat their argument in different words to make their supporting statement. By restating the point in different words, the argument does not move forward-it just goes around in a circle. Hence, this fallacy is called circular reasoning.
Example: Sports utility vehicles continue to be popular because consumers like them.
8. Begging the Question
Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning (see fallacy #7 above for more information). When authors "beg the question" they assert that facts are true when they have not proven them to be true. Begging the question fallacy is used to evade the real issues by drawing a conclusion without properly reviewing the facts. In the following example, notice how the author makes the assumption that a form is useless without providing any proof.
Example: All useless university forms like this one should be eliminated.
9. False Analogy
An analogy is an extended comparison of things that share qualities. A valid analogy provides examples that highlight the similarities between the compared items. When authors use analogies to clarify their points, they must carefully construct the analogy so the similarities are evident. False analogies occur when the comparison between the objects does not make sense. False analogies often happen when an author has not completely thought through the analogy and neglects to consider qualities NOT suitable for comparison. In the following example, think of all the ways children are NOT like puppies. The author ignores these differences.
Example: Very young children are like puppies-trusting, affectionate, and dependent; therefore, they should be trained using the same system of punishment and reward that is so successful in puppy obedience training.
10. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty cause and effect)
When one event precedes another, the first event can be viewed as the cause of the second event. However, not all relationships are causal, and often the fact that one event precedes another is merely coincidental. When authors provide no other proof for the causal relationship between events, and assume that since one event preceded another the first event is the cause of the second, they have created a post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy. Post hoc ergo propter hoc is Latin for -"after this, therefore because of this."
Example: The past three student body presidents were accepted into law school. Andy, our current student body president, will therefore get into law school next year.
11. Non Sequitur
Non sequitur is a Latin phrase meaning "it doesn't follow." When authors make a conclusion that is not logically linked to the arguments they presented, they have created a non sequitur. Some non sequitur fallacies are difficult to detect. In the following example the fact that Dr. Smith is a famous researcher and archeologist does not mean that she will be an effective teacher. Individuals can have a wealth of subject area knowledge yet not be able to teach and communicate this knowledge to others.
Example: Dr. Smith is a world-renowned archeologist and researcher. She was even featured on a cable special because of her impressive research work. She will be a wonderful teacher for our archeology class next semester.
